Introduction

Agriculture and livestock are among the most important productive sectors both at European and national level. In Europe, approximately 40% of the territory of the European Union (EU) counties is used for activities related to the agri-livestock sector, and more than half of this area is related exclusively to animal production. EU countries hold a leading position in the export of agricultural products, playing a significant role in food and nutritional security, both within and outside European borders. Additionally, the sector significantly contributes to employment, with 22 million people in Europe working in the primary sector and over 44 million jobs broadly related to it. 

In Greece, concerning land use, according to data from the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT), the area of agricultural land (arable crops, horticultural land, permanent crops, and fallow land) in 2021 amounted to 2,842 thousand hectares for the entire country. Arable crops (grains for seeds, edible pulses, industrial, aromatic, and Livestock plants, etc.) cover approximately 56.9% ( 1,617.89 thousand hectares) of the total agricultural area, with the rest used for permanent crops like vineyards and orchards (36.2% or  1,029.57 thousand hectares), horticultural crops (1.7% or 493.5 thousand stremmas), and fallow land (5.1% or  49.35 thousand hectares. Regarding livestock activities and Greece’s livestock, poultry farming amounts to 36,596,568 animals for the whole country, sheep farming 9,052,105 animals, goat farming 3,751,549 animals, cattle farming 766,755 animals, and pig farming 664,636 animals. 

It is  noted that the agriculture and livestock sector contributes significantly to the country’s economy, even after the intense and prolonged difficulties farmers and livestock breeders have faced,  over the past decade, initially due to the economic crisis, then   to the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic, and more recently due to various events related to natural disasters such as  floods and fires adding the supply chain disruptions due to the war in Ukraine. Finally, the sector plays an essential role in strengthening the social fabric in many Greek regions, and despite the reduction observed in recent years, it continues to employ a significant number of workers, keeping these regions vibrant. 

Impacts of Climate Change

The agriculture and livestock sector are intrinsically linked to the climate, as the type, quantity, and quality of produced products as well as the ecosystem services provided by agro-ecosystems depend to a large extent on the weather and climate conditions. Changes in temperature and precipitation (amounts and/or patterns) , the duration, intensity and frequency of extreme weather events, such as  heatwaves and intense droughts, are responsible for significant impacts which are already evident globally including, among others, availability of water resources and irrigation requirements, crop productivity and distribution, soil fertility and erosion, occurrence of agricultural pests and diseases, productivity, growth, reproduction, health, and metabolic activity of animals. 

Regarding the Mediterranean region, the so far available studies are concluding that the agriculture and livestock sector will be negatively affected by climate change as a whole, putting agricultural and livestock activities at risk. Concerning Greece, recent studies on climate change impacts on the sector have similar conclusions, which, among others, focus on: 

• increases in the average annual temperature both during the spring and summer months, as well as during the winter affecting the hibernation process, 

• Increased temperatures can affect each of thephases, including germination, flowering, fruit set, fruit development and growth, as well as production, 

• changes in precipitataion amounts and seasonality, 

• decrease in soil moisture and causing, an increase in the risk of forest fires, which may affect agricultural and livestock activities, 

• increase in the frequency of the high precipitation days and subsequently an increase in the frequency of flood events, 

• Increase in drought-related conditions (e.g., the number of days with a maximum temperature above 37°C), 

• Increase in growing degree days and the duration of plant growth and cultivation periods, 

• reduction of  the number of days and nights with low temperatures and frost occurrence, 

• changes in the composition and grazing capacity of pastures. 

These changes are likely to lead to an overall increased demand for water due to longer drought periods, to an increased risk of desertification, soil erosion and salinization, aquifer salinization, to affect plant phenology and physiology, crop productivity, the initiation/end and duration of the vegetative and cultivation period, the suitability of environmental conditions for specific species and crops, weed competition, disease spread, and pollinator efficiency, as well as meat and milk production, both quantitatively and qualitatively, due to the climate change  impacton animals’ biological processes. 

As in the rest of Europe, geographic differences regarding the nature, type, and intensity of climate change impacts are expected for the within Greek area depending on the environmental/climatic conditions of each region, the characteristics of agricultural and livestock activity and the type of crop or livestock. Overall, more intense negative impacts are expected for the southern regions of the country, such as Crete and the Aegean islands, while for the northern regions, such as Macedonia and Thrace, the impacts of climate change are expected to be less harmful or even positive in some cases. 

The various  impacts of climate change distributed  in  different regions of the country, as well as the different types of agricultural and livestock activities complicate the design, planning and implementation of horizontal measures. Nevertheless, the generally negative sign of climate change impacts for the sector across the country underline the need to incorporate climate change adaptation into sectoral planning and implementation of relevant actions, considering climate change impact assessments, and other pressures likely to affect the sector. 

Suggested Solutions

The Agriculture and Livestock sector is one of the 15 priority sectors included in the National Adaptation Strategy (NAS) (MEEN, 2016). Indicative actions and measures proposed in the NAS for adapting the sector to climate change impacts focus on: 

• integration of climate change adaptation in the legislative and regulatory framework (e.g., integration of the dimension of adaptation in the rural development programs of the Regions), as well as in strategic and operational planning (e.g., when updating Action Plans like the one for combating desertification), 

• institutionalization of new or improvement of existing monitoring systems (e.g., institutionalization/improvement of the national recording system for zoonoses, pathogenic organisms, insects, and weeds) and the dissemination of relevant information, 

• implementation of 

•  adaptation measures (e.g., protection against erosion and degradation of soil structure), 

• measures for improved water resource management (e.g., minimization of water transport losses), 

• pasture management measures (e.g., protection against overgrazing and undergrazing), 

• measures to protect plant genetic resources (e.g., creation of an in-situ genetic material banks), 

• measures to address microbial and non-microbial disease factors, 

• measures for the adaptation of production systems and the adaptation of cultivation techniques (e.g., adaptation of production systems and systems of housing and management of productive animals, shifting of installation dates for annual crops), 

• measures related to the selection of different or the creation of new varieties (e.g., selection of varieties with a reduced biological cycle), 

• measures aimed at protection from extreme weather events (e.g., creation of riparian buffer zones with vegetation), 

• other climate change adaptation measures, such as the expansion of organic farming systems and the promotion of agroforestry systems, 

• improving access to financial resources through incentives, 

• improving and acquiring innovative knowledge about climate change impacts and adaptation (e.g., including the study of climate change impacts on the agriculture and livestock sector in national research priorities), 

• improving access to and dissemination of information on climate change impacts and adaptation (e.g., creating databases of research findings on climate change impacts on agriculture and livestock and their adaptation to climate change), 

• enhancing coordination and cooperation (e.g., participation in European and international networks), and 

• information and training professional groups active in the sector through conferences, training programs and seminars and dissemination of information from national recording systems (e.g., zoonoses, phytopathogenic organisms, insects, weeds, etc.). 

(*) The main purpose of the proposed measures and actions is to serve as general guidelines supporting adaptation efforts in the Agriculture and Livestock sector. 

Related Links

• Hellenic Statistical Authority – Agriculture and Livestock Sector 
• European Platform for Climate Change Adaptation – Climate-ADAPT – Agriculture and Livestock Sector 
• International Union for Conservation of Nature – FAO